HISTORY OF ROBOTICS

                     HISTORY OF ROBOTICS

History:

                                                       Many ancient mythologies include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the Greek god Hephaestus (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and Galatea, the mythical statue of Pygmalion that came to life. In Greek drama, Deus Ex Machina was contrived as a dramatic device that usually involved lowering a deity by wires into the play to solve a seemingly impossible problem.

 

                               In the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called "The Pigeon". Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD), a Greek mathematician and inventor, created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water. Su Song built a clock tower in China in 1088 featuring mechanical figurines that chimed the hours.

                                                   Al-Jazari (1136–1206), a Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of automated machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata powered by water, and programmable automata. The robots appeared as four musicians on a boat in a lake, entertaining guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers that operated percussion instruments. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.

 

NIGHT VISION CARS

NIGHT VISION CARS

what is this system

                             It is a known fact that after dark it is impossible for man to see beyond a few metres in length without the correct illumination and this illumination also has its constraints and during the night times the reflectivity also increases and it is more a judgemental driving rather than a calculative one. The night vision helps the drivers in such cases. It makes a negative image of the image captured by the camera and illuminates the darker part thus enabling the driver to see what lies ahead by looking at the monitor that has been attached in front of the diver on the dash board or some other convenient part of the steering.

how its working

Night vision devices (NVD) work in the near-infrared band at a wavelength of about 1 Micrometer. For comparison, human visual range is about 0.4 to 0.7 micrometers. Unlike thermal imaging systems, which may operate on complete darkness using heat radiation signatures, well beyond the visible light spectrum, NVD's rely on ambient light, often from the moon and stars. The intensifier tubes use the photoelectric effect. As a photon collides with a detector plate, the metal ejects several electrons that are then amplified into a cascade of electrons that light up a phosphor screen. Often a dim star in the sky is enough to illuminate an entire field.

The night vision image does not have color information, and hence monochromatic displays are sufficient. A green phosphor (P22) display is generally used as the human eye is most sensitive to the color green in this wave length, which falls in the middle of the visible light spectrum.

The latest generation of NVD use a green yellow Phosphor (P43), and gives the operator a much more comfortable viewing experience. Current development by Photonis, have also created a gray scale or black & white Phosphor (P45).

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Modern Hybrid Vehicles and its uses

           Modern Hybrid Vehicles and its uses 

Hydraulic Hybrids..:                              

                
                 A hydraulic-diesel hybrid powertrain allows for the use of a less powerful and more fuel efficient diesel engine operating at its optimal setting and less frequently to obtain the same power as a less efficient engine directly powering the wheels. There are two accumulators; one high-pressure and the other low-pressure. Inside the accumulators are nitrogen bladders. When hydraulic fluid accumulates, the nitrogen bladders are compressed, and energy is stored. The low pressure accumulator acts like a reservoir containing hydraulic fluid.

                                            During braking, energy that is usually dissipated through heat is used to operate a pump that takes hydraulic fluid from the low-pressure accumulator to

pressurize the high pressure accumulator. This energy stored in the high-pressure nitrogen bladder is then used to accelerate the vehicle. During acceleration, the pressurized fluid leaves the high pressure accumulator and powers the pump/motor. The fluid then returns to the low pressure accumulator. The diesel engine is used when the high-pressure accumulator is depressurized and the vehicle is running at steady state.

Major components 

•           A high-pressure accumulator stores energy, as a battery would in a hybrid electric vehicle, by using hydraulic fluid to compress nitrogen gas stored inside each accumulator.

•           A low-pressure reservoir stores hydraulic fluid after it has been used by the pump/motor.

•           A rear drive pump/motor converts high-pressure hydraulic fluid into rotating power for the wheels and transmits braking energy back to the high-pressure accumulator.

•           An engine pump transmits pressurized hydraulic fluid to the rear drive pump/motor, the high-pressure accumulator, or both.

•           A hybrid controller monitors the driver's acceleration and braking actions and commands the hybrid system components.

Regenerative braking — When stopping the vehicle, the hybrid controller uses the energy from the wheels by pumping fluid from the low pressure reservoir into the high pressure accumulator. When the vehicle starts accelerating, this stored energy is used to accelerate the vehicle. This process allows hydraulic hybrids to recover and reuse over 70% of the energy normally wasted during breaking. 

Optimum engine control — The engine pump pressurizes and transfers fluid from the low pressure reservoir to the rear drive pump/motor, and under certain operating conditions, to the high pressure accumulator. In the full series hybrid design, there is no conventional transmission and drive shaft connecting the engine to the wheels, which frees the engine to be operated at its "best efficiency" speed, to achieve optimum vehicle fuel.

Shutting off the engine when not needed — The unique full series hybrid design not only allows the engine to be operated most efficiently, but also enables the engine to be completely shut off during certain stages of operation — such as when decelerating and when not moving at a stop. As a result, in certain stop-and-go urban city driving, engine use is cut almost in half.

Benefits of Hydraulic Hybrid Technology…:

·         Hydraulic drivetrains are particularly attractive for vehicle applications that entail a significant amount of stop-and-go driving, such as urban delivery trucks or school buses.

·         A major benefit of a hydraulic hybrid vehicle is the ability to capture and use a large percentage of the energy normally lost in vehicle braking. 

·         Hydraulic hybrids can quickly and efficiently store and release great amounts of energy due to a higher power density.

·         This is a critical factor in maximizing braking energy recovered and increasing the fuel economy benefit. While the primary benefit of hydraulics is higher fuel economy, hydraulics also increases vehicle acceleration performance. 

·         Hydraulic hybrid technology cost-effectively allows the engine speed or torque to be independent of vehicle speed resulting in cleaner and more efficient engine operation.

·         In a system hydraulic energy can be easily reversed but in case of other systems it cannot be reversed without stopping and also causes damage to the system.

·         Lower Emissions.

·         Reduced operating costs.

·         Better acceleration performance.

FUEL FROM WASTE PLASTICS by MOSES DHILIP KUMAR

                                               FUEL FROM WASTE PLASTICS  

                                               

 

  Plastic have become an integral part of our lives. Relatively low cost and being easily available have brought a use and throw culture. Each year more than 100 million tones of plastics are produced worldwide because of use and throw culture so plastics waste management has become a problem worldwide. This paper, explain the process of converting waste plastic into value added fuel through recycling. Thus two universal problems such as Problems of waste plastic and Problems of fuel shortage are being tackled simultaneously. The waste plastics are subjected to depolymerisation, fractional distillations to obtain different value added fuels such as petrol, kerosene, and diesel, lube oil, furnace oil traction and coke. The process of waste plastic into fuels can literally change the economic scenario of our country. Thus, process of converting plastics to fuel has now turned the problems into an opportunity to make wealth from waste.

Key Words: Waste plastics, Reactors, Depolymerisation and Fractional distillation.

  

                   Introduction

Degradability of different waste materials:    

SL. NO.	TYPE OF PRODUCTS	TIME  TAKEN  TO DEGENERATE
1	Organic waste, etc.	1    to 3   weeks
2	Paper	1    to 3   weeks
3	Cotton cloth	8    to 20 weeks
4	Wood	10  to 15 years
5	Wooden items.	10  years
6	Tin, Aluminium&Metals	100 to 500 years
7	Plastics	Million years

 


Yield

NAME OF THE PRODUCT	AMOUNT IN PERCENTAGE
Liquid Distillate	110 %  - 115 %
Coke	05% - 10%
Gas	18 % - 22%
LPG	14% - 16%
Hydrogen etc	01% - 02 %

FUELS	PERCENTAGE
Gasoline	60%
Diesel	30%
Lubricating Oil	8 –10 %

SL.NO.	SPECIFICATIONS	Regular PETROL	PETROL FROM WASTE PLASTIC
1.	Specific Gravity at 280 C	0.7423	0.7254
2.	Specific Gravity at 150 C	0.7528	0.7365
3.	Gross Calorific Value	11210	11262
4.	Net Calorific Value	10460	10498
5.	Aniline Point In 0 C	48	28
6.	Aniline Point In 0 F	118.4	82.4
7.	Flash Point	23	22
8.	Pour Point	< -20 0 C	< -20 0 C
9.	Cloud Point	< -20 0 C	< -20 0 C
10	Reactivity With Ss	NIL	NIL
11.	Reactivity With Ms	NIL	NIL
12.	Reactivity With Cl	NIL	NIL
13.	Reactivity With Al	NIL	NIL
14.	Reactivity With Cu	NIL	NIL
15.	Octane Rating	83	95
16.	Mileage	44.4	44.0
17.	Time for 0-60 KMPH	22.5 S	18.1 S
18.	Co % At 400 RMP/Hc	2.8	3.5
19.	Comments On Engine Noise	MORE	LESS

Process brief for 1 KG input and the yield of output:    

INPUT	QTY	RATE      PER KG	AMOUNT (RS).	OUTPUT	QTY   (   LITER)	RATE   PER     LITER	AMOUNT (RS).
PLASTIC	1.00	2.00	2.00	PETROL	0.600	37.50	22.50
LABOUR			5.00	DIESEL	0.300	25.50	7.65
SERVICE        CHARGE			2.50	LUBE OIL	0.100	15.00	1.50
TOTAL	1.00		9.50		1.00		31.65

·         Shreeve’s Handbook of Chemical Engineering.
·         Jatropha Bio-diesel production in University of Bangalore, the Statesman (Teri).
·         Ganesnan V ‘IC Engines’, TATA McGraw Hill Book Company- New Delhi.
·         Rajput R.K. ‘Thermal Engineering’, Lakshmi Production (P) Ltd.

Plastics play a major role in day-today life, as in certain application they have an edge over conventional materials. Indeed, their light weight, durability, energy efficiency, coupled with a faster rate of production and more design flexibility, have allowed breakthroughs in fields ranging from non-conventional energy, to horticulture and irrigation, water-purification systems and even space flight.

How ever one has to accept that virtues and vices co-exist. Plastics are relatively cheaper and being easily available has brought about use and throws culture. Plastics waste management has become a problem world over because of their non-degradable property. A majority of landfills, allotted for plastic waste disposal, are approaching their full capacity. Thus recycling is becoming necessary.

Plastics in Environment

Three million tones of waste plastics are produced every year in the U.K.alone, only 7% of which is recycled. In the current recycling process usually the plastics end up at city landfills or incinerator. As with any technological trend, the engineering profession plays an important role in the disposal of plastic waste. Discarded plastic products and packaging materials make up a growing portion of municipal solid waste.

The Global Environment Protection Agency [GEPA] estimates that by the year 2004 the amounts of plastic throw away will be 65% greater than that in the 1990’s. The recycling of the plastic is only about one percent of waste plastic in the stream of waste in developing countries as compared to a rate of recycling of aluminum which is about 40% and 20% for paper, where as recycling rate in India is very high up to 20% of waste plastic.

                In a short span of five years plastics have captured 40% of total 6.79 billion USD packaging market in India. This situation may grow further in the coming years with more and more US and European companies entering the market. It would be very interesting to note the type of litter we generate and the approximate time it takes to degenerate.

India has been used as a dumping ground for plastic waste, mostly from industrialized countries like Canada, Denmark, Germany, UK, Netherlands, Japan, France and the United States.

Each year more than 100 million tones of plastic are produced worldwide. Though plastics have opened the way for a plethora of new inventions and devices it has also ended up clogging the drains and becoming a health hazard. The plastic waste accounts to about 5600 tons per day in India. At these alarming levels of waste generation, India needs to set up facilities for recycling and disposing the waste.

Technological Process

Several processes and means have been attempted to fight against the alarming levels of waste generation. However each process has its drawbacks and operational, economical and financial limitations for practical implementation. We have to set up a process to overcome the above-mentioned drawbacks and limitations.

Description in process

Generally any waste plastic treatment involves sorting operation, which is a time and energy consuming process. In this process waste plastic can be utilized without any sorting (or) cleaning operation.

The process consists of following operations   

1.    Loading of waste into the reactors.

2.    Depolymerisation of the waste plastic.

3.    Collecting the liquid distillate

4.    Collecting the combustible gases.

Fractional Distillation

1.    Loading of distillate into the distillation furnace,

2.    Collecting the fraction of liquid distillate from the distillation tower.

The waste plastic from the landfills are segregated and stored in the storage tank. Using hot air to the reactor where depolymerisation takes place conveys it. The depolymerisation of waste plastic under control batch reactor results in conversion of waste plastic in a mixture of fuels at atmospheric pressure and ambient room temperature.

Liquid fuels consist of Fraction of Gasoline, Diesel, and Lubricating oil. In the process of conversion, by-products such as gases and cokes are also formed. Gases are tested and majority of them are proved to be in the range of LPG. Coke is available as residue in the process, which is again in the form of fuel.

Properties and their Purification of fuels

            

The properties of liquid distillate match with properties (Ex: specific gravity and pour points) of high quality imported crude.          The fuels obtained in the waste plastic process are virtually free from contaminants such as Lead, Sulphur and Nitrogen. In the process (i.e.) the conversion of waste Plastic into Fuels, the properties mentioned above of Petrol & Diesel fractions obtained are of superior quality with respect to regular commercial Petrol and Diesel purchased locally and has been proved by the performance test.

During the process, hazards related to health and safety is reduced to 90% as compared to regular refinery process.

Quality of fuels

The quality of Gasoline and Diesel fractions obtained in the process is not only at par with regular fuels in tests like Specific gravity is 0.7365 /15⁰C CCR (Conradson Carbon Residue) Ash, calorific value etc but it is also better in terms of quality in test like flash point, API gravity.

Additives

            Regular fuels obtained from Crude oil like Gasoline and Diesel are subjected to many reactions and various additives are added to improve combustion and meet BIS characteristics before it is introduced to market. However the fuel (Gasoline, Diesel) fractions obtained in the process can be utilized without much processing.

          

The average percentage output yield of the products in the first phase of reaction depending on the composition of the waste plastic is as follows,

The percentage of liquid distillate is mentioned in terms of weight by volume whereas percentage of Coke & Gas is mentioned in terms of weight by weight. During the second phase of reaction (i.e.) fractional distillation, the average percentage yields of various fuel fractions depending on the composition of the waste plastic are follows,

Comparison of Petrol from waste Plastics with regular Petrol

Feasibility

The production of the fuels from the waste plastic of various sorts has been carried out a number of times to arrive at the unit cost of production. The break - up of the cost for per kg input of the plastic and the related output for the same is depicted in the table below.

Conclusion

                      Since, the plastics are non-biodegradable, the development in biodegradable plastics are still lagging behind. So it is essential to convert the plastics for some useful purposes in order to reduce the waste plastics to environment. . Thus, the process of converting plastics to fuel has now turned the problems into an opportunity to make wealth from waste. This paper is of greater importance in the present Indian scene in view of the serious energy crisis and is in the interest of national economy.